Document ID: E_1_02
Section: E_Cataclysms_and_Chronology
Keywords: meteor, asteroid, Chicxulub, Tollmann, Burckle, Kaali, Campo del Cielo, NEO, DART, Tunguska, impact, phosphate minerals, Ryugu Bennu, water-bearing minerals, paleoclimatology
Category Tags: cataclysms, chronology
Cross-References: C_3_01 · E_1_01 · E_4_03
Reliability Tier: Tier 2-3 (cataclysmic events and chronological frameworks)
Last Updated: Mar 13, 2026 | Source Count: 15 | Weighted Score: 32 | Source Confidence: [4/5] | Confidence: Moderate (mixed evidence across tiers)
QUICK SUMMARY
This document examines Meteor and Asteroid Impacts on Earth, a topic within the Cataclysms and Chronology research area. Notable findings include: The Finnish Kalevala describes a "fire-child" stolen from heaven that burns the land. The document presents evidence organized across multiple tiers — from peer-reviewed and verified claims to more speculative interpretations — with cross-references to related topics throughout the knowledge base.
1. Overview
Reliability: TIER 1 ·
Earth has been bombarded by asteroids, comets, and meteoroids throughout its 4.5-billion-year history. Over 194 confirmed impact structures have been identified, representing only a fraction of actual impacts — most evidence destroyed by erosion, plate tectonics, and ocean-floor subduction.
| Fact | Value |
|---|
| Largest confirmed crater | Vredefort (160 km, 2,023 Ma, South Africa) |
| Most consequential impact | Chicxulub (180 km, 66 Ma — K-Pg mass extinction) |
| Largest modern event | Tunguska (1908, ~60 m object, airburst, ~3–50 Mt TNT) |
| Most recent significant event | Chelyabinsk (2013, ~20 m object, ~500 kt TNT) |
| Confirmed extinction-linked impacts | Only K-Pg is definitively linked |
2. Impact Timeline — Last 100,000 Years (Human-Relevant)
Reliability: TIER 1 (verified events) / TIER 2–3 (contested events) ·
| Date (Approx.) | Event / Location | Significance | Tier |
|---|
| ~50,000 BP | Meteor Crater (Arizona) | 1.2 km crater; 50 m nickel-iron meteorite; desert-preserved | TIER 1 |
| ~12,800 BP | Younger Dryas Event | Potential airbursts causing cooling/extinction (see E_1_01) | TIER 2 |
| ~7,640 BCE | Tollmann's Bolide | Hypothetical 7-part impact linked to "Seven Suns" myths | TIER 3–4 |
| ~3,000 BCE | Burckle Crater (Indian Ocean) | Submarine crater linked to flood myths & mega-tsunamis | TIER 2–3 |
| ~3,000 BCE | Morasko (Poland) | Iron meteor shower witnessed by Neolithic Europeans | TIER 1 |
| ~2,500 BCE | Campo del Cielo (Argentina) | "Field of Heaven" — iron masses worshipped by indigenous tribes | TIER 1 |
| ~1,500 BCE | Kaali Crater (Estonia) | "The Sun Fell" — main crater became a fortified shrine | TIER 1 |
3. Deep-Time Impact Timeline
Reliability: TIER 1 ·
3.1 Hadean & Archean (>2,500 Ma)
| Crater/Event | Diameter (km) | Age (Ma) | Location | Notes |
|---|
| Theia Impact | Planet-scale | ~4,500 | Global | Moon-forming giant impact (see E_1_03) |
| Late Heavy Bombardment | Multiple | 4,100–3,800 | Global | 22,000+ craters >20 km theorized |
| Barberton Layers S2/S4 | Unknown | ~3,470–3,260 | South Africa | Impactors 20–58 km; spherule bed evidence |
| Yarrabubba | ~30 | 2,229 | Western Australia | Oldest confirmed crater |
| Vredefort | 160 | 2,023 | South Africa | Largest confirmed crater |
3.2 Paleozoic through Mesozoic (541–66 Ma)
| Crater/Event | Diameter (km) | Age (Ma) | Location | Notes |
|---|
| Ordovician Meteor Event | Strewn field | ~470 | Global | L-chondrite parent body breakup |
| Siljan Ring | 52 | ~380 | Sweden | Largest impact in Europe |
| Manicouagan | 100 | 215.56 | Quebec | "Eye of Quebec" |
| Morokweng | 70 | 146 | South Africa | Chondrite impactor found in crater |
| Chicxulub | 180–200 | 66.043 | Yucatán, Mexico | K-Pg mass extinction |
3.3 Cenozoic (66 Ma–Present)
| Crater/Event | Diameter (km) | Age (Ma) | Location | Notes |
|---|
| Hiawatha | 31 | ~58 | Greenland (under ice) | Ruled out as YD candidate |
| Popigai | 100 | 35.7 | Siberia | Industrial diamonds from impact |
| Chesapeake Bay | 40 | ~35 | Virginia, USA | Buried; caused regional mega-tsunami |
| Ries/Steinheim | 24 / 3.8 | 14.8 | Bavaria | Paired impact; town built inside |
| Barringer (Meteor Crater) | 1.186 | 0.049 | Arizona | Most famous; well-preserved |
4. Chicxulub — The Defining Impact Event
Reliability: TIER 1 ·
| Parameter | Value |
|---|
| Crater diameter | 180–200 km |
| Impactor | 10–15 km C-type asteroid (carbonaceous chondrite) |
| Impact velocity | ~20 km/s |
| Energy released | 72–100 teratonnes TNT (4.2 × 10²³ J) |
| Seismic magnitude | Mw 9–11 |
| Tsunami height | 100+ meters |
| Impact winter | 3+ years; ~2 years severely reduced sunlight |
| Global fires | ~70% of forests |
| Species extinct | ~75% of all species |
| Recovery time | ~10 million years for full biodiversity |
4.1 The Big Five Extinctions and Impact Connections
| # | Event | Date (Ma) | Species Lost | Impact Link? |
|---|
| 1 | Late Ordovician | 445–444 | 85% | ❌ No confirmed impact |
| 2 | Late Devonian | 372–359 | 70% | ⚠️ Possible (Siljan Ring) |
| 3 | Permian–Triassic | 251.9 | 81–96% | ⚠️ Controversial |
| 4 | Triassic–Jurassic | 201.3 | 70–75% | ❌ No confirmed impact |
| 5 | Cretaceous–Paleogene | 66 | 75% | ✅ Chicxulub confirmed |
5. Modern Witnessed Events
Reliability: TIER 1 ·
| Event | Date | Object Size | Energy (TNT) | Effects |
|---|
| Tunguska | June 30, 1908 | ~30–40 m | 10–15 Mt | Flattened 2,150 km² of forest; no crater; airburst at 6–10 km altitude |
| Sikhote-Alin | Feb 12, 1947 | Iron meteorite | ~20 kt | 23+ craters; 23 tonnes recovered |
| Chelyabinsk | Feb 15, 2013 | ~17 m | ~500 kt | ~1,200 injured; dashcam footage went viral; entry at ~18 km/s |
| Kamchatka Superbolide | Dec 18, 2018 | 9–14 m | ~173 kt | 3rd largest since 1900; over open ocean |
| 2008 TC₃ | Oct 7, 2008 | ~4 m | ~1–2 kt | First asteroid detected in space before impact; fragments recovered |
6. Mythological Connections
Reliability: TIER 1 (archaeological) to TIER 3 (interpretive)
6.1 Kaali Crater and the Kalevala (Estonia, ~1,500 BCE)
- The Finnish Kalevala describes a "fire-child" stolen from heaven that burns the land
- The Kaali impact (~1,500 BCE) occurred in a populated area on the island of Saaremaa
- The main crater was later walled and used as a fortified shrine
- Strong archaeological and mythological correlation [TIER 1]
6.2 Campo del Cielo — "Field of Heaven" (Argentina, ~2,500 BCE)
- Indigenous peoples believed the iron masses were pieces of the sun
- Name literally translates to "Field of Heaven"
- Multiple craters; large iron meteorite fragments found and worshipped [TIER 1]
6.3 Burckle Crater — Great Flood? (Indian Ocean, ~3,000 BCE)
- Hypothetical submarine crater linked to mega-tsunamis
- Correlates with timeline of Sumerian Flood and Biblical Deluge narratives
- The crater's existence is itself debated [TIER 2–3]
6.4 Tollmann's Bolide (~7,640 BCE)
- Proposed by Kristan-Tollmann & Tollmann (1994)
- Hypothetical 7-part comet impact linked to "Seven Suns" myths worldwide
- Single-source hypothesis; not independently supported [TIER 3–4]
7. Impact Frequency and Risk
Reliability: TIER 1 ·
| Object Diameter | Impact Interval | Energy (TNT) | Effects |
|---|
| 4 m | ~1.3 years | ~3 kt | Bright fireball; no ground damage |
| 20 m | ~60 years | ~500 kt | Chelyabinsk-class |
| 50 m | ~764 years | ~10 Mt | Tunguska-class |
| 100 m | ~5,200 years | ~100 Mt | Regional devastation |
| 1 km | ~500,000–1 My | ~100 Gt | Global catastrophe threshold |
| 10 km | ~100–200 My | ~100 Tt | Mass extinction level |
8. Near-Earth Object (NEO) Tracking and Planetary Defense
Reliability: TIER 1 ·
8.1 NEO Discovery Totals (as of 2026-02-08)
| Size Category | Count |
|---|
| NEAs total | 40,853 |
| NEAs ≥1 km | 882 |
| NEAs ≥140 m | 11,565 |
| <30 m | ~12,433 |
| 30–100 m | 14,050 |
| 100–300 m | 8,436 |
| 300–1,000 m | 5,052 |
Source: CNEOS/JPL (cneos.jpl.nasa.gov), accessed 2026-02-08.
8.2 CNEOS Fireball Database
- 1,051 reported fireball events (1988-04-15 to 2026-01-31)
- Data are not real-time; not all events reported [TIER 1]
8.3 Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO)
- Established by NASA in 2016
- Mission: find, track, and characterize potentially hazardous asteroids and comets
- Manages the NEO observation program and coordinates U.S. planetary defense activities
8.4 DART Mission (2022) — First Kinetic Deflection Test
| Parameter | Value |
|---|
| Target | Dimorphos (moonlet of Didymos) |
| Impact date | September 26, 2022 |
| Result | Orbital period shortened by ~32 minutes (11h 55m → 11h 23m) |
| Significance | Validated kinetic impact deflection as a planetary defense technique |
8.5 ESA Hera Mission
- Launched 2024; will rendezvous with Didymos/Dimorphos in 2026/2027
- Measure DART impact effects and refine deflection models
- Didymos ~780 m; Dimorphos ~151 m [TIER 1]
8.6 NEO Surveyor
- Planned space-based infrared survey telescope
- Designed to find most potentially hazardous asteroids >140 m
- Recommended by the 2010 U.S. National Research Council planetary defense report
- Policy driver: George E. Brown, Jr. NEO Survey Act (2005) — detect 90% of NEOs ≥140 m [TIER 1]
- 2024 update [RECENT]: Mission approved, development proceeding toward launch in late 2020s [Tier 1]
8.7 OSIRIS-REx / Bennu Sample Return (2023) [RECENT] [DEEP SCAN ADD]
Reliability: TIER 1 — VERIFIED | NASA mission with peer-reviewed results
| Parameter | Value |
|---|
| Target | 101955 Bennu (near-Earth asteroid, ~500 m diameter) |
| Sample returned | September 24, 2023 |
| Sample mass | ~121.6 grams — exceeding the 60-gram goal |
| Key findings | Water-bearing clay minerals, organic molecules including amino acids, phosphate minerals |
| Significance | Confirms carbonaceous asteroids delivered water and organic building blocks to early Earth |
- The mission has been renamed OSIRIS-APEX and redirected to asteroid Apophis for its historic 2029 close approach [Tier 1]
8.8 Apophis 99942 — 2029 Close Approach [DEEP SCAN ADD]
- April 13, 2029: Apophis (~370 m) will pass within 31,600 km of Earth's surface — closer than geostationary satellites [Tier 1]
- Visible to the naked eye from Europe, Africa, and western Asia
- No impact risk — trajectory precisely calculated after 2021 radar observations ruled out all impact scenarios through 2116 [Tier 1]
- OSIRIS-APEX will rendezvous with Apophis shortly after the flyby to study tidal deformation effects [Tier 1]
- Cultural significance: The closest approach of a large asteroid in recorded human history — a public engagement opportunity for planetary defense awareness
9. The 30 Largest Confirmed Impact Craters
| Rank | Crater | Diameter (km) | Age (Ma) | Location |
|---|
| 1 | Vredefort | 160 | 2,023 | South Africa |
| 2 | Chicxulub | 150–200 | 66 | Yucatán, Mexico |
| 3 | Sudbury | 130 | 1,849 | Ontario, Canada |
| 4 | Popigai | 100 | 35.7 | Siberia, Russia |
| 5 | Manicouagan | 100 | 215.56 | Quebec, Canada |
| 6 | Acraman | 90 | ~580 | South Australia |
| 7 | Puchezh-Katunki | 80 | ~167 | Russia |
| 8 | Morokweng | 70 | 146 | South Africa |
| 9 | Kara | 65 | ~70.3 | Russia |
| 10 | Beaverhead | 60 | ~600 | Montana, USA |
Full 30-crater catalog with coordinates available in source Master/24.
10. Controversial & Hypothesized Structures
Reliability: TIER 2–4 ·
| Structure | Proposed Size (km) | Proposed Age | Status |
|---|
| Bedout | 250 | ~250 Ma | Proposed P-Tr cause; widely criticized |
| Wilkes Land | 480 | Unknown (possibly Permian) | Under Antarctic ice; if confirmed, largest ever |
| Shiva | 500×400 | ~66 Ma | Proposed K-Pg secondary; probably volcanic/tectonic |
| Falkland anomaly | 250 | Up to 250 Ma | Gravity anomaly; not circular — unlikely impact |
| YD Impact(s) | No crater | ~12,900 BP | Airburst hypothesis; no confirmed crater (see E_1_01) |
11. Impact-Produced Materials of Note
| Material | Source | Notes |
|---|
| Moldavites (tektites) | Ries Crater (14.8 Ma) | Green glass; used as gemstones |
| Impactite diamonds | Popigai (35.7 Ma) | Trillions of carats of industrial-grade diamonds |
| Nickel-copper ores | Sudbury (1,849 Ma) | Major global mining district |
| Libyan desert glass | Unknown crater (~29 Ma?) | Used in Tutankhamun's scarab |
| Australasian tektites | Unknown crater (~803 ka) | Strewn field covers ~10% of Earth's surface |
12. Baseline Definitions
Reliability: TIER 1 ·
| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Asteroid | Rocky remnant from early solar system formation, mostly in the main belt; combined mass less than Earth's Moon |
| Meteoroid | Small rocky/metallic body in space |
| Meteor | Atmospheric phenomenon (streak of light) when meteoroid enters atmosphere |
| Meteorite | Fragment that reaches the ground |
| Daily meteoritic influx | ~48.5 tons of meteoritic material falls on Earth per day |
13. Key Takeaways
- Only one mass extinction is definitively linked to an asteroid impact — K-Pg / Chicxulub (66 Ma).
- Earth has been hit by objects far larger than Chicxulub — Vredefort and Sudbury occurred before complex life
- Tunguska (1908) is a warning shot — a ~60 m object with no warning devastated 2,150 km²
- Planetary defense is improving — >95% of 1 km+ NEOs catalogued; DART validated deflection
- Most impact evidence is lost — plate tectonics recycles ocean floor every ~200 My; true impacts dwarf the ~194 confirmed structures.
- Impacts may trigger volcanism — Deccan Traps were erupting simultaneously with Chicxulub (antipodal focusing hypothesis)
Counter-Arguments & Criticisms
Chicxulub K-Pg Impact Is Tier 1 Consensus — Settled Science
- The Alvarez hypothesis is confirmed: The iridium anomaly (Alvarez et al., 1980), shocked quartz, microtektites, and the 180-km Chicxulub crater (Hildebrand et al., 1991) are independently verified by 40+ years of research. Schulte et al. (2010) — a 41-author review in Science — concluded that a single large impact at Chicxulub caused the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction. This is not a contested claim.
- Deccan Traps timing debate: The only ongoing scientific dispute concerns whether volcanism (Deccan Traps) contributed to extinction alongside the impact. Schoene et al. (2019) showed Deccan eruptions intensified after the the impact, suggesting impact-triggered volcanism — a complementary mechanism, not an alternative to impact theory. Hull et al. (2020) found that climate warming from Deccan volcanism was already subsiding before the impact, with the extinction pulse coinciding with the impact itself.
Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis Remains Controversial — TIER 2-3
- Firestone et al. (2007) claims are disputed: The proposed ~12,800 BP impact/airburst hypothesis has faced sustained criticism. Pinter et al. (2011, Earth-Science Reviews) argued that the alleged nanodiamonds, carbon spherules, and magnetic grains cited as impact markers can form through wildfire, volcanism, and pedogenic processes without an extraterrestrial impactor.
- YDIH proponents counter: Kennett et al. (2015) reported platinum anomalies at 28 YD-boundary sites across four continents. Moore et al. (2020) identified high-temperature melted materials at Abu Hureyra, Syria. The hypothesis has evolved but remains below scientific consensus — no crater or impactor has been identified.
Tollmann's Bolide Hypothesis Is Single-Source — TIER 3
- Kristan-Tollmann & Tollmann (1994): The 7-impact "Flood Bolide" hypothesis, claiming seven simultaneous cometary impacts caused global flood myths ~9,500 years ago, depends heavily on correlation between tektite fields and flood traditions. No independent geological confirmation of simultaneous multi-impact exists. The hypothesis is cited primarily in catastrophist literature, not mainstream planetary science (French, 1998).
Burckle Crater Is Unconfirmed — TIER 3
- Abbott et al. (2006) proposed a 30-km submarine crater in the Indian Ocean as the source of mega-tsunamis ~4,800 years ago, linking it to Mesopotamian and other flood narratives. However, the structure has not been confirmed as an impact crater — no drilling has penetrated it, and the bathymetric anomaly may be volcanic or tectonic. Gusiakov et al. (2010) classified it as "possible" but unverified.
Ancient Impact Memory Is Methodologically Limited — TIER 2
- Oral tradition timescales: While Nunn & Reid (2015) demonstrated that Australian Aboriginal oral traditions preserve accurate sea-level information from ~7,000 years ago, extrapolating this to claim mythological memory of specific impact events at deep time scales (>10,000 years) faces the objection that oral traditions undergo systematic transformation. Vansina (1985, Oral Tradition as History) established a methodological ceiling of ~500 years for reliable historical information in oral transmission.
- Catastrophism ≠ fringe: Modern catastrophism (acknowledging rare high-energy events) is mainstream after Alvarez et al. (1980); the template language above claiming "catastrophist scenarios lack geological evidence" misrepresents the current state of the field. The question is which specific proposed impacts have adequate evidence, not whether impacts occur.
CROSS-REFERENCE INDEX
| Document | Section | Connection |
|---|
| C_3_01 | C_Global_Traditions | C_3_01 — Global Flood Stories |
| E_1_01 | E_Cataclysms_and_Chronology | E_1_01 — Younger Dryas Impact |
| E_4_03 | E_Cataclysms_and_Chronology | E_4_03 — Paleomagnetism Geomagnetic Excursions |
IMAGES
| # | Description | Filename | Source | License |
|---|
| 1 | No images catalogued yet | — | — | — |
Sources
Primary Scientific
- Alvarez, L.W., et al. (1980). "Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction." Science 208(4448), 1095–1108. DOI: 10.1126/science.208.4448.1095.
- Schulte, P., et al. (2010). Science 327(5970), 1214–1218.
- Hull, P.M., et al. (2020). Science 367(6475), 266–272.
- Firestone, R.B., et al. (2007). PNAS 104(41), 16016–16021.
- Kristan-Tollmann, E. & Tollmann, A. (1994). "The youngest big impact on Earth.". DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3121.1994.tb00656.x
- Abbott, D.H., et al. (2006). Impact craters as sources of mega-tsunamis (Burckle Crater).
Databases and Agencies
- CNEOS/JPL: cneos.jpl.nasa.gov (NEO statistics, fireball database)
- Earth Impact Database, University of New Brunswick: 200+ confirmed structures
- NASA Planetary Defense: science.nasa.gov/planetary-defense/. DOI: 10.1126/science.adf2893
- ESA Hera: esa.int/Space_Safety/Hera/
GPT5.2 Source URLs
- S1–S_4_06: CNEOS stats, NASA PDCO, DART, ESA Hera, asteroid/meteorite basics, Chicxulub, Tunguska, Chelyabinsk, Earth Impact Database, NEO Surveyor, Congressional NEO Survey Act
E_1_02 — Consolidated from Gemini/24, GPT5.2/24, Master/24, raptor/24 + Deep Scan — February 2026
Updated: February 21, 2026 — Added OSIRIS-REx Bennu sample return (2023), Apophis 2029 flyby, NEO Surveyor update
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Alvarez, Luis W. et al., (Science, ) | 1980 | "Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Firestone, Richard B. et al., (Bear; Company, ) | 2006 | "The Cycle of Cosmic Catastrophes: Flood, Fire, and Famine in the History of Civilization" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Schulte, Peter et al., (Science, ) | 2010 | "The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1126/science.1177265 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Clube, Victor; Napier, Bill, (Universe Books, ) | 1982 | "The Cosmic Serpent: A Catastrophist View of Earth History" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | isbn:9780876633793 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Hildebrand, Alan R. et al., (Geology, ). )019<0867:CCAPCT>2.3.CO; 2 | 1991 | "Chicxulub Crater: A Possible Cretaceous/Tertiary Boundary Impact Crater on the Yucatan Peninsula" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1991 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Hull, Pincelli M. et al., (Science, ) | 2020 | "On Impact and Volcanism across the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1126/science.aay5055 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Pinter, Nicholas et al., (Earth-Science Reviews, ) | 2011 | "The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis: A Requiem" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.02.005 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Kennett, James P. et al., (PNAS, ) | 2015 | "Bayesian Chronological Analyses Consistent with Synchronous Age of 12,835-12,735 Cal yr BP for Younger Dryas Boundary on Four Continents" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1073/pnas.1507146112 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Schoene, Blair et al., (Science, ) | 2019 | "U-Pb Constraints on Pulsed Eruption of the Deccan Traps across the End-Cretaceous Mass Extinction" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1126/science.aau2422 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- French, Bevan M., (Lunar; Planetary Institute, ) | 1998 | "Traces of Catastrophe: A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Vansina, Jan, (University of Wisconsin Press, ) | 1985 | "Oral Tradition as History" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Nunn, Patrick D.; Reid, Nicholas J., (Australian Geographer, ) | 2015 | "Aboriginal Memories of Inundation of the Australian Coast Dating from More than 7000 Years Ago" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1080/00049182.2015.1077539 | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Kristan-Tollmann, Edith; Tollmann, Alexander, (Terra Nova, ) | 1994 | "The Youngest Big Impact on Earth, Deduced from Geological and Historical Evidence" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1111/j.1365-3121.1994.tb00656.x | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Abbott, Dallas H. et al., (GSA Special Paper, ) | 2006 | "Impact Craters as Sources of Mega-Tsunami Generated Chevron Dunes" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
- Moore, Andrew M.T. et al., (Scientific Reports, ) | 2020 | "Evidence of Cosmic Impact at Abu Hureyra, Syria at the Younger Dryas Onset" | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | ∅ | doi:10.1038/s41598-020-60867-w | ∅ | ∅ | ∅
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